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Eukaryotic organisms that cannot be classified under the kingdoms Plantae, Animalia or Fungi are sometimes grouped in the kingdom Protista. Eukaryotes belong to the taxon Eucarya or Eukaryota. The defining feature that sets eukaryotic cells apart from prokaryotic cells Bacteria and Archaea is that they have membrane-bound organelles, especially the nucleus, which contains the genetic material and is enclosed by the nuclear envelope. In addition, plants and algae contain chloroplasts. Eukaryotic organisms may be unicellular or multicellular.

Only eukaryotes form multicellular organisms consisting of many kinds of tissue made up of different cell types. Eukaryotes can reproduce both asexually through mitosis and sexually through meiosis and gamete fusion. In mitosis, one cell divides to produce two genetically identical cells. In meiosis, DNA replication is followed by two rounds of cell division to produce four daughter cells haploid cells each with half the number of chromosomes as the original parent cell.

These act as sex cells gametes — each gamete has just one complement of chromosomes, each a unique mix of the corresponding pair of parental chromosomes resulting from genetic recombination during meiosis. The domain Eukaryota appears to be monophyletic , and so makes up one of the three domains of life. The two other domains, Bacteria and Archaea, are prokaryotes [6] and have none of the above features.

Eukaryotes represent a tiny minority of all living things. In and , the Russian biologist Konstantin Mereschkowsky — argued three things about the origin of nucleated cells.

Firstly, plastids were reduced cyanobacteria in a symbiosis with a non- photosynthetic heterotrophic host. Secondly, the host had earlier in evolution formed by symbiosis between an amoeba-like host and a bacteria-like "micrococcal" cell that formed the nucleus.

Thirdly, plants inherited photosynthesis from cyanobacteria. The concept of the eukaryote has been attributed to the French biologist Edouard Chatton The terms prokaryote and eukaryote were more definitively reintroduced by the Canadian microbiologist Roger Stanier and the Dutch-American microbiologist C. In his work Titres et Travaux Scientifiques , Chatton had proposed the two terms, calling the bacteria prokaryotes and organisms with nuclei in their cells eukaryotes.

However he mentioned this in only one paragraph, and the idea was effectively ignored until Chatton's statement was rediscovered by Stanier and van Niel. In , Lynn Margulis provided microbiological evidence for endosymbiosis as the origin of chloroplasts and mitochondria in eukaryotic cells in her paper, On the origin of mitosing cells.

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This helped to uncover the origin of the eukaryotes and the symbiogenesis of two important eukaryote organelles , mitochondria and chloroplasts. In , Woese and George Fox introduced a "third form of life", which they called the Archaebacteria; in , Woese, Otto Kandler and Mark L.

Wheeler renamed this the Archaea. Dring suggested that the eukaryotic cell's nucleus came from the ability of Gram-positive bacteria to form endospores.

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In and later papers, Thomas Cavalier-Smith proposed instead that the membranes of the nucleus and endoplasmic reticulum first formed by infolding a prokaryote's plasma membrane. In the s, several other biologists proposed endosymbiotic origins for the nucleus, effectively reviving Mereschkowsky's theory. Eukaryotic cells are typically much larger than those of prokaryotes. They have a variety of internal membrane-bound structures, called organelles, and a cytoskeleton composed of microtubules , microfilaments , and intermediate filaments , which play an important role in defining the cell's organization and shape.

Eukaryotic DNA is divided into several linear bundles called chromosomes , which are separated by a microtubular spindle during nuclear division. Eukaryote cells include a variety of membrane-bound structures, collectively referred to as the endomembrane system. Many cells ingest food and other materials through a process of endocytosis , where the outer membrane invaginates and then pinches off to form a vesicle. It is probable that most other membrane-bound organelles are ultimately derived from such vesicles.

Alternatively some products produced by the cell can leave in a vesicle through exocytosis. The nucleus is surrounded by a double membrane commonly referred to as a nuclear membrane or nuclear envelope , with pores that allow material to move in and out.

Various tube- and sheet-like extensions of the nuclear membrane form what is called the endoplasmic reticulum or ER, which is involved in protein transport and maturation.

It includes the rough ER where ribosomes are attached to synthesize proteins, which enter the interior space or lumen. Subsequently, they generally enter vesicles, which bud off from the smooth ER. In most eukaryotes, these protein-carrying vesicles are released and further modified in stacks of flattened vesicles, called Golgi bodies or dictyosomes.

Vesicles may be specialized for various purposes. For instance, lysosomes contain digestive enzymes that break down the contents of food vacuoles, and peroxisomes are used to break down peroxide , which is toxic otherwise. Many protozoa have contractile vacuoles, which collect and expel excess water, and extrusomes , which expel material used to deflect predators or capture prey.

In higher plants, most of a cell's volume is taken up by a central vacuole, which primarily maintains its osmotic pressure. Mitochondria are organelles found in nearly all eukaryotes that provide energy to the cell by converting ingested sugars into ATP.

Mitochondria contain their own DNA. They are now generally held to have developed from endosymbiotic prokaryotes, probably proteobacteria. Protozoa and microbes that lack mitochondria, such as the amoebozoan Pelomyxa and metamonads such as Giardia and Trichomonas , have usually been found to contain mitochondrion-derived organelles, such as hydrogenosomes and mitosomes , and thus probably lost the mitochondria secondarily.

In , Monocercomonoides , a metamonad flagellate which resides in the intestines of the chinchilla , has been found to lack mitochondria entirely. Monocercomonoides obtains its energy by enzymatic action on nutrients absorbed from the environment. It has also acquired, by lateral gene transfer , a cytosolic sulphur mobilisation system which provides the clusters of iron and sulfur required for protein synthesis. The normal mitochondrial iron-sulphur cluster pathway is considered to have been lost secondarily.

Plants and various groups of algae also have plastids. Plastids have their own DNA and are developed from endosymbionts , in this case cyanobacteria. They usually take the form of chloroplasts , which like cyanobacteria contain chlorophyll and produce organic compounds such as glucose through photosynthesis. Others are involved in storing food. Although plastids probably had a single origin, not all plastid-containing groups are closely related.

Instead, some eukaryotes have obtained them from others through secondary endosymbiosis or ingestion. Endosymbiotic origins have also been proposed for the nucleus, for which see below, and for eukaryotic flagella. Many eukaryotes have long slender motile cytoplasmic projections, called flagella , or similar structures called cilia. Flagella and cilia are sometimes referred to as undulipodia , [16] and are variously involved in movement, feeding, and sensation.

They are composed mainly of tubulin. These are entirely distinct from prokaryotic flagellae. They are supported by a bundle of microtubules arising from a basal body , also called a kinetosome or centriole , characteristically arranged as nine doublets surrounding two singlets. Flagella also may have hairs, or mastigonemes , and scales connecting membranes and internal rods. Their interior is continuous with the cell's cytoplasm. Microfilamental structures composed of actin and actin binding proteins, e.

Motor proteins of microtubules, e. Centrioles are often present even in cells and groups that do not have flagella, but conifers and flowering plants have neither. They generally occur in groups of one or two, called kinetids , that give rise to various microtubular roots. These form a primary component of the cytoskeletal structure, and are often assembled over the course of several cell divisions, with one flagellum retained from the parent and the other derived from it.

Centrioles may also be associated in the formation of a spindle during nuclear division. The significance of cytoskeletal structures is underlined in the determination of shape of the cells, as well as their being essential components of migratory responses like chemotaxis and chemokinesis. Some protists have various other microtubule-supported organelles.

These include the radiolaria and heliozoa , which produce axopodia used in flotation or to capture prey, and the haptophytes , which have a peculiar flagellum-like organelle called the haptonema. The cells of plants, fungi, and most chromalveolates have a cell wall, a layer outside the cell membrane , providing the cell with structural support, protection, and a filtering mechanism. The cell wall also prevents over-expansion when water enters the cell.

The major polysaccharides making up the primary cell wall of land plants are cellulose , hemicellulose , and pectin. The cellulose microfibrils are linked via hemicellulosic tethers to form the cellulose-hemicellulose network, which is embedded in the pectin matrix.

The most common hemicellulose in the primary cell wall is xyloglucan. There are many different types of eukaryotic cells, though animals and plants are the most familiar eukaryotes, and thus provide an excellent starting point for understanding eukaryotic structure.

Fungi and many protists have some substantial differences, however. All animals consist of eukaryotic cells. Animal cells are distinct from those of other eukaryotes, most notably plants , as they lack cell walls and chloroplasts and have smaller vacuoles. Due to the lack of a cell wall , animal cells can adopt a variety of shapes. A phagocytic cell can even engulf other structures. There are many other types of cell. For instance, there are approximately distinct cell types in the adult human body.

Plant cells are quite different from the cells of the other eukaryotic organisms. Their distinctive features are:. Eukaryotes are a very diverse group, and their cell structures are equally diverse.

Many have cell walls; many do not. Many have chloroplasts, derived from primary, secondary, or even tertiary endosymbiosis; and many do not. Some groups have unique structures, such as the cyanelles of the glaucophytes , the haptonema of the haptophytes , or the ejectisomes of the cryptomonads. Other structures, such as pseudopods , are found in various eukaryote groups in different forms, such as the lobose amoebozoans or the reticulose foraminiferans.

Cell division generally takes place asexually by mitosis , a process that allows each daughter nucleus to receive one copy of each chromosome. In most eukaryotes, there is also a process of sexual reproduction , typically involving an alternation between haploid generations, wherein only one copy of each chromosome is present, and diploid generations, wherein two copies of each chromosome are present, occurring through meiosis.

There is considerable variation in this pattern. Eukaryotes have a smaller surface area to volume ratio than prokaryotes, and thus have lower metabolic rates and longer generation times.

In some multicellular organisms, cells specialized for metabolism will have enlarged surface areas, such as intestinal vili. The evolution of sexual reproduction may be a primordial and fundamental characteristic of eukaryotes.

Based on a phylogenetic analysis, Dacks and Roger proposed that facultative sex was present in the common ancestor of all eukaryotes. For instance, parasitic protozoa of the genus Leishmania have recently been shown to have a sexual cycle. In antiquity , the two clades of animals and plants were recognized.

They were given the taxonomic rank of Kingdom by Linnaeus. Though he included the fungi with plants with some reservations, it was later realized that they are quite distinct and warrant a separate kingdom, the composition of which was not entirely clear until the s.

In , the German biologist Georg A. Goldfuss coined the word protozoa to refer to organisms such as ciliates , and this group was expanded until it encompassed all single-celled eukaryotes, and given their own kingdom, the Protista , by Ernst Haeckel in The protists were understood to be "primitive forms", and thus an evolutionary grade , united by their primitive unicellular nature. Several alternative classifications have been forwarded, though there is no consensus in the field.

A classification produced in for the International Society of Protistologists , [30] which reflected the consensus of the time, divided the eukaryotes into six supposedly monophyletic 'supergroups'. However, in the same year , doubts were expressed as to whether some of these supergroups were monophyletic , particularly the Chromalveolata , [31] and a review in noted the lack of evidence for several of the supposed six supergroups. There are also smaller groups of eukaryotes whose position is uncertain or seems to fall outside the major groups [33] — in particular, Haptophyta , Cryptophyta , Centrohelida , Telonemia , Picozoa , [34] Apusomonadida , Ancyromonadida , Breviatea , and the genus Collodictyon.

In an article published in Nature Microbiology in April the authors, "reinforced once again that the life we see around us — plants, animals, humans and other so-called eukaryotes — represent a tiny percentage of the world's biodiversity.

Banfield of the University of California, Berkeley and fellow scientists used a super computer to generate a diagram of a new tree of life based on DNA from species including 2, known species and 1, newly reported microbial organisms, whose DNA they had gathered from diverse environments.

The rRNA trees constructed during the s and s left most eukaryotes in an unresolved "crown" group not technically a true crown , which was usually divided by the form of the mitochondrial cristae; see crown eukaryotes. The few groups that lack mitochondria branched separately, and so the absence was believed to be primitive; but this is now considered an artifact of long-branch attraction , and they are known to have lost them secondarily. As of [update] , there is widespread agreement that the Rhizaria belong with the Stramenopiles and the Alveolata, in a clade dubbed the SAR supergroup , so that Rhizaria is not one of the main eukaryote groups; also that the Amoebozoa and Opisthokonta are each monophyletic and form a clade, often called the unikonts.

It has been estimated that there may be 75 distinct lineages of eukaryotes. The known eukaryote genome sizes vary from 8. A global tree of eukaryotes from a consensus of phylogenetic evidence in particular, phylogenomics , rare genomic signatures, and morphological characteristics is presented in Adl et al. Cavalier-Smith , [52] , [53] and [54] places the eukaryotic tree's root between Excavata with ventral feeding groove supported by a microtubular root and the grooveless Euglenozoa:.

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The origin of the eukaryotic cell is considered a milestone in the evolution of life, since eukaryotes include all complex cells and almost all multicellular organisms. The timing of this series of events is hard to determine; Knoll suggests they developed approximately 1. Some acritarchs are known from at least 1. Organized living structures have been found in the black shales of the Palaeoproterozoic Francevillian B Formation in Gabon, dated at 2. Eukaryotic life could have evolved at that time.

Biomarkers suggest that at least stem eukaryotes arose even earlier. The presence of steranes in Australian shales indicates that eukaryotes were present in these rocks dated at 2.

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The nuclear DNA and genetic machinery of eukaryotes is more similar to Archaea than Bacteria , leading to a controversial suggestion that eukaryotes should be grouped with Archaea in the clade Neomura. In other respects, such as membrane composition, eukaryotes are similar to Bacteria. Three main explanations for this have been proposed:. An additional proposal, the chronocyte hypothesis, postulates that a primitive eukaryotic cell was formed by the endosymbiosis of both archaea and bacteria by a third type of cell, termed a chronocyte.

A possible cladogram for the positioning of eukaryotes within Archaea, based on phylogenomic analyses of the Asgard archaea: The origins of the endomembrane system and mitochondria are also unclear. Here the membranes originated after the engulfment of the mitochondrion, in part thanks to mitochondrial genes the hydrogen hypothesis is one particular version. In a study using genomes to construct supertrees , Pisani et al.

Different hypotheses have been proposed as to how eukaryotic cells came into existence. These hypotheses can be classified into two distinct classes — autogenous models and chimeric models. Autogenous models propose that a proto-eukaryotic cell containing a nucleus existed first, and later acquired mitochondria.

As the invaginations differentiated in function, some became separate compartments—giving rise to the endomembrane system , including the endoplasmic reticulum , golgi apparatus , nuclear membrane , and single membrane structures such as lysosomes. Since all eukaryotes have mitochondria, but not all have chloroplasts, mitochondria are thought to have come first.

This is the serial endosymbiosis theory. Some models propose that the origins of double layered organelles , such as mitochondria and chloroplasts , in the proto-eukaryotic cell is due to the compartmentalization of DNA vesicles that were formed from the secondary invaginations or more detailed infoldings of cellular membrane. Chimeric models claim that two prokaryotic cells existed initially — an archaeon and a bacterium. These cells underwent a merging process, either by a physical fusion or by endosymbiosis , thereby leading to the formation of a eukaryotic cell.

Within these chimeric models, some studies further claim that mitochondria originated from a bacterial ancestor while others emphasize the role of endosymbiotic processes behind the origin of mitochondria. Based on the process of mutualistic symbiosis , the hypotheses can be categorized as — the serial endosymbiotic theory SET , [78] [79] [80] the hydrogen hypothesis mostly a process of symbiosis where hydrogen transfer takes place among different species , [81] and the syntrophy hypothesis.

According to serial endosymbiotic theory championed by Lynn Margulis , a union between a motile anaerobic bacterium like Spirochaeta and a thermoacidophilic crenarchaeon like Thermoplasma which is sulfidogenic in nature gave rise to the present day eukaryotes. This union established a motile organism capable of living in the already existing acidic and sulfurous waters. Oxygen is known to cause toxicity to organisms that lack the required metabolic machinery.

Thus, the archaeon provided the bacterium with a highly beneficial reduced environment sulfur and sulfate were reduced to sulfide. In microaerophilic conditions, oxygen was reduced to water thereby creating a mutual benefit platform.

The bacterium on the other hand, contributed the necessary fermentation products and electron acceptors along with its motility feature to the archaeon thereby gaining a swimming motility for the organism. From a consortium of bacterial and archaeal DNA originated the nuclear genome of eukaryotic cells. Spirochetes gave rise to the motile features of eukaryotic cells.

Endosymbiotic unifications of the ancestors of alpha-proteobacteria and cyanobacteria, led to the origin of mitochondria and plastids respectively. For example, Thiodendron has been known to have originated via an ectosymbiotic process based on a similar syntrophy of sulfur existing between the two types of bacteria — Desulphobacter and Spirochaeta. However, such an association based on motile symbiosis have never been observed practically. Also there is no evidence of archaeans and spirochetes adapting to intense acid-based environments.

In the hydrogen hypothesis, the symbiotic linkage of an anaerobic and autotrophic methanogenic archaeon host with an alpha-proteobacterium the symbiont gave rise to the eukaryotes. The host utilized hydrogen H 2 and carbon dioxide CO 2 to produce methane while the symbiont, capable of aerobic respiration, expelled H 2 and CO 2 as byproducts of anaerobic fermentation process. The host's methanogenic environment worked as a sink for H 2 , which resulted in heightened bacterial fermentation.

Endosymbiotic gene transfer EGT acted as a catalyst for the host to acquire the symbionts' carbohydrate metabolism and turn heterotrophic in nature. Subsequently, the host's methane forming capability was lost. Thus, the origins of the heterotrophic organelle symbiont are identical to the origins of the eukaryotic lineage. In this hypothesis, the presence of H 2 represents the selective force that forged eukaryotes out of prokaryotes.

The syntrophy hypothesis was developed in contrast to the hydrogen hypothesis and proposes the existence of two symbiotic events.

According to this theory, eukaryogenesis i. This syntrophic symbiosis was initially facilitated by H 2 transfer between different species under anaerobic environments.

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In earlier stages, an alpha-proteobacterium became a member of this integration, and later developed into the mitochondrion. Gene transfer from a delta-proteobacterium to an archaeon led to the methanogenic archaeon developing into a nucleus. The archaeon constituted the genetic apparatus while the delta-proteobacterium contributed towards the cytoplasmic features. This theory incorporates two selective forces that were needed to be considered during the time of nucleus evolution — a presence of metabolic partitioning in order to avoid the harmful effects of the co-existence of anabolic and catabolic cellular pathways, and b prevention of abnormal biosynthesis of proteins that occur due to a vast spread of introns in the archaeal genes after acquiring the mitochondrion and the loss of methanogenesis.

Thus, the origin of eukaryotes by endosymbiotic processes has been broadly recognized and accepted so far. Mitochondria and plastids have been known to originate from a bacterial ancestor during parallel adaptation to anaerobiosis. However, there still remains a greater need in assessing the question of how much eukaryotic complexity is being originated via an implementation of these symbiogenetic theories.

From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia. For the journal, see Eukaryotic Cell journal. Kingdom Plantae — Plants.

Kingdom Animalia — Animals. Human timeline and Nature timeline. Journal of Eukaryotic Microbiology. Archived from the original PDF on 10 May Collins Dictionary of Human Biology. Lehninger Principles of Biochemistry 4th ed. Macmillan Dictionary of Life Sciences 2nd ed. The New York Times. Retrieved 11 April The unseen majority" PDF. Phil Trans Royal Soc B. Microbiology and Molecular Biology Reviews. In Burnap, Robert L. Functional Genomics and Evolution of Photosynthetic Systems.

Are there eukaryotic cells without mitochondria? Retrieved 13 May Lessons from Chlamydomonas reinhardtii ". Archived from the original PDF on 14 June Proc Natl Acad Sci USA. Retrieved 11 February Archived from the original PDF on 17 December Cold Spring Harbor Perspectives in Biology. Molecular Biology and Evolution. Revisiting the Root of the Eukaryote Tree".

Genome Biology and Evolution. Redfield, Rosemary Jeanne, ed. European Journal of Protistology. European journal of protistology. Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society B. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America. Why is Life the Way it is? Advances in Experimental Medicine and Biology. The role of symbiosis in eukaryotic evolution. Origins and evolution of life — An astrobiological perspective. Journal of Cell Science. Retrieved 27 March Origin of Eukaryotic Cells.

Symbiosis in Cell Evolution. Journal of Molecular Evolution. Origins and Evolution of Life: Domain Archaea Bacteria Eukaryota Supergroup Plant Hacrobia Heterokont Alveolata Rhizaria Excavata Amoebozoa Opisthokonta Animal Fungi. Euglenozoa Jakobea Percolozoa Tsukubea. Viridiplantae or plantae sensu stricto. Cryptophyceae Endohelea Goniomonadea Kathablepharidea Palpitea Picomonadea Telonemea. Centrohelea Pavlovophyceae Prymnesiophyceae Rappemonada.

Cercozoa Retaria Acantharea Foraminifera Polycystinea Sticholonchea. Bicosoecea Developayellales Hyphochytrea Ochrophyta Opalinata Opalomonadea Peronosporomycetes Pirsoniales Platysulca Sagenista. Acavomonadia Ciliates Colponemidia Myzozoa Apicomplexa Chromerida Dinoflagellata Myzomonadea. Diphyllatea Discocelida Glissodiscea Micronucleariida Rigifilida. Conosa Archamoebae , Semiconosia Lobosa Cutosea , Discosea , Tubulinea.

Choanoflagellates Corallochytrea Filasterea Mesomycetozoea Metazoa or Animals. Cristidiscoidea True fungi Opisthosporidia Aphelida Cryptomycota Microsporidia. Former kingdoms are underlined. Sources and alternative views: Bordnamonadida Hemistasiida Trypanophidida Prokinetoplastida Neobodonida Parabodonida Bodonida Trypanosomatida. Petalomonadida Sphenomonadales Ploeotiida Heteronematales Rhabdomonadales Peranemida Euglenomorphales Eutreptiales Euglenales.

Lyromonadida Plaesiobystridae Gruberellidae Psalteriomonadidae Acrasida Acrasidae Guttulinopsidae Schizopyrenida Naegleriidae Vahlkampfiidae Neovahlkampfiidae Paravahlkampfiidae Euhyperamoebidae. Lophomonadida Lophomonadidae Trichonymphida Hoplonymphidae Spirotrichosomidae Staurojoeninidae Teranymphidae Trichonymphidae. Trichomonadida Hypotrichomonadidae Tricercomitidae Hexamastigidae Honigbergiellidae Trichomonadidae Trichocovinida Trichocovinidae Tritrichomonadida Dientamoebidae Monocercomonadidae Simplicimonadidae Tritrichomonadidae Spirotrichonymphida Spirotrichonymphidae Cristamonadida Calonymphidae Devescovinidae.

Caviomonadidae Diplomonadida Giardiidae Octomitidae Spironucleidae Hexamitidae Retortamonadida Retortamonadidae. Kipferliidae Dysnectida Dysnectidae Chilomastigida Chilomastigidae. Paratrimastigidae Trimastigida Trimastigidae Oxymonadida Polymastigidae Saccinobaculidae Pyrsonymphidae Streblomastigidae Oxymonadidae. Cyanidiophyceae Porphyridiophyceae Compsopogonophyceae Stylonematophyceae Rhodellophyceae Bangiophyceae Florideophyceae. Glaucocystophyceae Glaucocystis Cyanophora Gloeochaete.

Palmophyllales Nephroselmidophyceae Prasinophyceae Pseudoscourfieldiales Pyramimonadophyceae Scourfieldiales Pedinophyceae Chlorodendrophyceae UTC clade Ulvophyceae Trebouxiophyceae Chlorophyceae. Charophytes Mesostigmatophyceae Chlorokybophyceae Klebsormidiophyceae Charophyceae Coleochaetophyceae Zygnematophyceae. See also the list of plant orders. Microhelida Microhelidae Heliomonadida Heliomonadidae. CKHgc Chroomonas , Komma other Falcomonas.

GHgc Guillardia , Hanusia GPTgc Geminigera , Teleaulax other Proteomonas. RRSgc Pyrenomonas , Rhinomonas , Rhodomonas , Storeatula. Pterocystida Choanocystidae Oxnerellidae Heterophryidae Pterocystidae Acanthocystida Marophryidae Raphidiophryidae Acanthocystidae. Coccolithales Pleurochrysis , Coccolithus Prymnesiales Chrysochromulina , Prymnesium Isochrysidales Chrysotila , Dicrateria , Emiliania , Gephyrocapsa , Isochrysis See also: Chromulinales Chrysosphaerales Hibberdiales Hydrurales Phaeothamniales.

Ascoseirales Cutleriales Desmarestiales Dictyotales Discosporangiales Ectocarpales Fucales Ishigeales Laminariales Nemodermatales Onslowiales Ralfsiales Scytosiphonales Scytothamnales Sphacelariales Sporochnales Syringodermatales Tilopteridales. Chattonella , Fibrocapsa , Gonyostomum , Haramonas , Heterosigma , Vacuolaria.

Heterogloeales Ochromonadales Rhizochloridales Synurales. Botrydiales Mischococcales Tribonematales Vaucheriales. Biddulphiophycidae Chaetocerotophycidae Corethrophycidae Coscinodiscophycidae Cymatosirophycidae Lithodesmiophycidae Rhizosoleniophycidae Thalassiosirophycidae.

Heterotrichea Stentor , Climacostomum , Blepharisma Karyorelictea Loxodes , Tracheloraphis. Spirotrichea Stylonychia , Euplotes Litostomatea Balantidium , Dileptus Phyllopharyngea Chilodonella , Tokophrya Armophorea Metopus Nassophorea Nassula Colpodea Colpoda Oligohymenophorea Tetrahymena , Ichthyophthirius , Vorticella , Paramecium Plagiopylea Plagiopyla Prostomatea Coleps , Holophrya Protocruziea Protocruzia Cariacotrichea Cariacothrix caudata.

Mesodiniea Mesodinium , Myrionecta. Garniidae Garnia Haemoproteidae Haemoproteus Leucocytozoidae Leucocytozoon Plasmodiidae Plasmodium. Babesiidae Babesia Theileriidae Theileria.

Gemmocystidae Gemmocystis Rhytidocystidae Rhytidocystis. Adeleidae Dactylosomatidae Babesiosoma , Dactylosoma Haemogregarinidae Haemogregarina Hepatozoidae Hepatozoon Karyolysidae Karyolysus Klossiellidae Klossiella Legerellidae Legerella.

Aggregatidae Aggregata , Grasseella , Merocystis , Ovivora , Pseudoklossia , Selysina Atoxoplasmatidae Barrouxiidae Calyptosporiidae Caryotrophidae Cryptosporidiidae Cryptosporidium Eimeriidae Cyclospora , Eimeria , Isospora Elleipsisomatidae Lankesterellidae Selenococcidiidae. Sarcocystinae Frenkelia , Sarcocystis Toxoplasmatinae Besnoitia , Hammondia , Hyaloklossia , Nephroisospora , Neospora , Toxoplasma. Angeiocystidae Angeiocystis Eleutheroschizonidae Coelotropha , Defretinella , Eleutheroschizon Grelliidae Coelotropha , Grellia Mackinnoniidae Mackinnonia Myriosporidae Myriosporides , Myriospora.

Exoschizonidae Exoschizon Selenidioididae Filipodium , Merogregarina , Meroselenidium , Platyproteum , Selenidioides , Veloxidium. Aikinetocystidae Allantocystidae Diplocystidae Enterocystidae Ganymedidae Lecudinidae Monocystidae Monocystinae , Oligochaetocystinae , Rhynchocystinae , Stomatophorinae , Zygocystinae Schaudinnellidae Selenidiidae Thiriotiidae Urosporidae.

Fusionicae Fusionidae Gregarinicae Cephaloidophoridae , Cephalolobidae , Didymophoridae , Gregarinidae , Hirmocystidae , Metameridae , Uradiophoridae Porosporicae Porosporidae Stenophoricae Acutidae , Amphiplatysporidae , Brustiophoridae , Cnemidosporidae , Dactylophoridae , Leidyanidae , Monoductidae , Monoicidae , Sphaerocystidae , Stenophoridae , Trichorhynchidae Stylocephaloidea Actinocephalidae , Stylocephalidae Blabericolidae.

Schizogregarinina Caulleryellidae , Ophryocystidae Gigaductidae Gigaductus Lipotrophidae Apicystis , Farinocystis , Lipotropha , Lipocystis , Mattesia , Menzbieria Schizocystidae Lymphotropha , Machadoella , Schizocystis Syncystidae Syncystis. Chromeraceae Chromera velia Vitrellaceae Vitrella brassicaformis. Alphamonadidae Alphamonas Voromonadidae Voromonas. Peridiniales Pfiesteria , Peridinium Gonyaulacales Ceratium , Gonyaulax Prorocentrales Prorocentrum Dinophysiales Dinophysis , Histioneis , Ornithocercus , Oxyphysis Without theca: Gymnodiniales Gymnodinium , Karenia , Karlodinium , Amphidinium Suessiales Polarella , Symbiodinium.

Amoebophryaceae Amoebophyra Duboscquellaceae Duboscquella Syndiniaceae Hematodinium , Syndinium. Acrocoelidae Acrocoelus Ichthyodinium Oxyrrhinaceae Oxyrrhis Pronoctilucidae Pronoctiluca Psammosidae Psammosa Rastromonadida Parvilucifera , Rastromonas.

Perkinsidae Perkinsus Phagodinida Phagodinium. Ellobiopsidae Elliobiocystis , Ellobiopsis , Thalassomyces. Squirmidae Platyproteum , Filipodium. Parvamoebina Parvamoebidae Tectiferina Cochliopodiidae Pellitina Pellitidae Goceviidae. Vannellina Vannellidae Discamoebidae Stygamoebina Stygamoebidae Dactylopodina Paramoebidae Vexilliferidae.

Flabellina Flabellulidae Leptomyxina Gephyramoebidae Leptomyxidae. Phryganellina Eulobosina Centropyxidae Difflugidae. Pelomyxina Pelomyxidae Mastigamoebina Mastigamoebidae. Holomastigida Phalansteriida Artodiscida Varipodida. Echinosteliopsida Ceratiomyxida Lucisporidia Liceida Trichiida Echinostelida Echinosteliidae Clastodermidae Fuscisporida Lamprodermina Stemonitina Physarina.

Nucleariida Nucleariidae Fonticulida Fonticulaceae. Metchnikovellea Metchnikovellida Microsporea Chytridiopsida Glugeida Meiodihaplophasida Dissociodihaplophasida. Neocallimastigomycota Chytridiomycota Blastocladiomycota Olpidiomycota Entomophthoromycota Kickxellomycota Mucoromycota Glomeromycota Entorrhizomycota Ascomycota Basidiomycota.

Sphaeroformina Psorospermidae Piridae Creolimacidae Trichomycina Ichthyophonidae Amoebidiidae Palavasciaceae Parataeniellaceae Eccrinaceae. Acanthoecida Stephanoecidae Acanthoecidae Craspedida Codonosigidae Salpingoecidae. Porifera Planulozoa Cnidaria Bilateria Xenacoelomorpha Nephrozoa Deuterostome inc.

Extant phyla of kingdom Animalia. Porifera sponges Ctenophora comb jellies Placozoa Trichoplax. Cnidaria jellyfish and relatives. Xenoturbellida Xenoturbella Acoelomorpha Acoels Nemertodermatids. Echinodermata starfish and relatives Hemichordata Acorn worms Pterobranchs.

Kinorhyncha mud dragons Priapulida penis worms Loricifera. Nematoda roundworms Nematomorpha horsehair worms. Arthropoda arthropods Tardigrada waterbears Onychophora velvet worms. Gnathostomulida jaw worms Micrognathozoa Limnognathia Syndermata Rotifera Acanthocephala Cycliophora Symbion. Platyhelminthes flatworms Gastrotricha hairybacks Mesozoans Orthonectida Dicyemida or Rhombozoa.

Bryozoa moss animals Brachiozoa Brachiopoda or lamp shells Phoronida or horseshoe worms. Annelida ringed worms Mollusca molluscs Nemertea ribbon worms Entoprocta Kamptozoa. Sponges Calcareous Hexactinellid Demosponge Homoscleromorpha Cnidarians Anthozoa inc.

Parazoa and Eumetazoa ; Radiata ; Platyzoa ; Monoblastozoa nomen dubium.

True fungi classification, fungal orders. Coniocybomycetes Lichinomycetes Arthoniomycetes Dothideomycetes Eurotiomycetes Lecanoromycetes. Xylonomycetes Geoglossomycetes Leotiomycetes Laboulbeniomycetes Sordariomycetes. Archaeorhizomycetes Neolectomycetes Pneumocystidomycetes Schizosaccharomycetes Taphrinomycetes. Tritirachiomycetes Mixiomycetes Agaricostilbomycetes Cystobasidiomycetes Microbotryomycetes Classiculomycetes Cryptomycocolacomycetes Atractiellomycetes Pucciniomycetes.

Monilielliomycetes Malasseziomycetes Ustilaginomycetes Exobasidiomycetes. Neocallimastigomycetes Hyaloraphidiomycetes Monoblepharidomycetes Chytridiomycetes. Fungal phyla are underlined. Organisms and comparable organic structures.

Bacteria Archaea Eukaryota Animalia Fungi Plantae Protista. Mammalian prion Fungal prion. Defective Interfering RNA Defective interfering DNA. Retrieved from " https: Uses editors parameter Wikipedia indefinitely move-protected pages Articles needing additional references from March All articles needing additional references Articles with 'species' microformats Articles containing potentially dated statements from All articles containing potentially dated statements All articles with unsourced statements Articles with unsourced statements from March Articles with unsourced statements from March Wikipedia articles incorporating text from the United States National Library of Medicine All articles with dead external links Articles with dead external links from March Use dmy dates from July Use American English from March All Wikipedia articles written in American English Wikipedia articles with GND identifiers Articles containing video clips.

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March Learn how and when to remove this template message. Eukaryotes and some examples of their diversity. Land plants , green algae , red algae , and glaucophytes. Stramenopiles brown algae , diatoms , etc. Most lobose amoeboids and slime molds. Animals , fungi , choanoflagellates , etc. Wikispecies has information related to: Rhizaria Cercozoa Retaria Acantharea Foraminifera Polycystinea Sticholonchea. Stramenopiles heterokonts Bicosoecea Developayellales Hyphochytrea Ochrophyta Opalinata Opalomonadea Peronosporomycetes Pirsoniales Platysulca Sagenista.

Varisulca Diphyllatea Discocelida Glissodiscea Micronucleariida Rigifilida. Amoebozoa Conosa Archamoebae , Semiconosia Lobosa Cutosea , Discosea , Tubulinea. Holozoa Choanoflagellates Corallochytrea Filasterea Mesomycetozoea Metazoa or Animals. Discicristata Euglenozoa Postgaardea Postgaardida Postgaardidae. Jakobida Andaluciina Andaluciidae Stygiellidae. Metamonad Trichozoa Parabasalia Chilomitea Chilomitida Chilomitidae.

Eopharingea Caviomonadidae Diplomonadida Giardiidae Octomitidae Spironucleidae Hexamitidae Retortamonadida Retortamonadidae.

Anaeromonadea Paratrimastigidae Trimastigida Trimastigidae Oxymonadida Polymastigidae Saccinobaculidae Pyrsonymphidae Streblomastigidae Oxymonadidae. Chlorophyta Palmophyllales Nephroselmidophyceae Prasinophyceae Pseudoscourfieldiales Pyramimonadophyceae Scourfieldiales Pedinophyceae Chlorodendrophyceae UTC clade Ulvophyceae Trebouxiophyceae Chlorophyceae.

Corbihelia Endohelea Microhelida Microhelidae Heliomonadida Heliomonadidae. Chroomonadaceae CKHgc Chroomonas , Komma other Falcomonas.

Centroheliozoa Centrohelea Pterocystida Choanocystidae Oxnerellidae Heterophryidae Pterocystidae Acanthocystida Marophryidae Raphidiophryidae Acanthocystidae.

Chrysophyceae, golden algae Chromulinales Chrysosphaerales Hibberdiales Hydrurales Phaeothamniales. Coscinodiscophyceae Biddulphiophycidae Chaetocerotophycidae Corethrophycidae Coscinodiscophycidae Cymatosirophycidae Lithodesmiophycidae Rhizosoleniophycidae Thalassiosirophycidae. Postciliodesmatophora Heterotrichea Stentor , Climacostomum , Blepharisma Karyorelictea Loxodes , Tracheloraphis. Apicomplexa Aconoidasida Haemospororida Garniidae Garnia Haemoproteidae Haemoproteus Leucocytozoidae Leucocytozoon Plasmodiidae Plasmodium.

Coccidia Agamococcidiorida Gemmocystidae Gemmocystis Rhytidocystidae Rhytidocystis. Adeleorina Adeleidae Dactylosomatidae Babesiosoma , Dactylosoma Haemogregarinidae Haemogregarina Hepatozoidae Hepatozoon Karyolysidae Karyolysus Klossiellidae Klossiella Legerellidae Legerella. Archigregarinorida Exoschizonidae Exoschizon Selenidioididae Filipodium , Merogregarina , Meroselenidium , Platyproteum , Selenidioides , Veloxidium.

Aseptatorina Aikinetocystidae Allantocystidae Diplocystidae Enterocystidae Ganymedidae Lecudinidae Monocystidae Monocystinae , Oligochaetocystinae , Rhynchocystinae , Stomatophorinae , Zygocystinae Schaudinnellidae Selenidiidae Thiriotiidae Urosporidae.

Chromerida Chromeraceae Chromera velia Vitrellaceae Vitrella brassicaformis. Dinokaryota With a theca: Perkinsea Perkinsidae Perkinsus Phagodinida Phagodinium. Ellobiopsea Ellobiopsidae Elliobiocystis , Ellobiopsis , Thalassomyces. Cutosea Squamocutida Squamamoebidae Sapocribridae. Euamoebida Nolandellidae Amoebidae Hartmannellidae. Archamoebae incertae sedis Tricholimacidae Endamoebidae.

Variosea paraphyletic Holomastigida Phalansteriida Artodiscida Varipodida. Myxogastria Echinosteliopsida Ceratiomyxida Lucisporidia Liceida Trichiida Echinostelida Echinosteliidae Clastodermidae Fuscisporida Lamprodermina Stemonitina Physarina.

Cristidiscoidea Nucleariida Nucleariidae Fonticulida Fonticulaceae. Opisthosporidia Aphelida Aphelidea Aphelidida. Teretosporea Corallochytrea Corallochytriida Corallochytriidae.

Filasterea Ministeriida Capsasporidae Ministeriidae. Choanoflagellate Acanthoecida Stephanoecidae Acanthoecidae Craspedida Codonosigidae Salpingoecidae. Basal Porifera sponges Ctenophora comb jellies Placozoa Trichoplax.

Xenacoelomorpha Xenoturbellida Xenoturbella Acoelomorpha Acoels Nemertodermatids. Ecdysozoa Scalidophora Kinorhyncha mud dragons Priapulida penis worms Loricifera. Gnathifera Gnathostomulida jaw worms Micrognathozoa Limnognathia Syndermata Rotifera Acanthocephala Cycliophora Symbion. Rouphozoa Platyhelminthes flatworms Gastrotricha hairybacks Mesozoans Orthonectida Dicyemida or Rhombozoa. Lophophorata Bryozoa moss animals Brachiozoa Brachiopoda or lamp shells Phoronida or horseshoe worms.

Major groups within phyla Sponges Calcareous Hexactinellid Demosponge Homoscleromorpha Cnidarians Anthozoa inc. Ascomycota sac fungi Pezizomycotina Leotiomyceta Dothideomyceta Coniocybomycetes Lichinomycetes Arthoniomycetes Dothideomycetes Eurotiomycetes Lecanoromycetes. Pucciniomycotina Tritirachiomycetes Mixiomycetes Agaricostilbomycetes Cystobasidiomycetes Microbotryomycetes Classiculomycetes Cryptomycocolacomycetes Atractiellomycetes Pucciniomycetes.

Satellite ssRNA satellite virus dsDNA satellite virus Virophage ssDNA satellite dsRNA satellite ssRNA satellite Virusoid.

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